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the organic world

  • 1 органический

    I
    ( живой) organic

    органи́ческий мир — the organic world

    ••

    органи́ческое стекло́ — perspex фирм. брит.; plexiglass фирм. амер.

    органи́ческая хи́мия — organic chemistry ['ke-]

    II

    органи́ческий поро́к се́рдца — organic defect of the heart

    органи́ческое це́лое — integral whole

    3) ( внутренне присущий) organic, inherent

    органи́ческое недове́рие к незнако́мым лю́дям — an inherent distrust of strangers

    Новый большой русско-английский словарь > органический

  • 2 органический

    (в разн. знач.)
    organic

    Русско-английский словарь Смирнитского > органический

  • 3 तिर्यच् _tiryac _तिर्यञ्च _tiryañca

    तिर्यच् तिर्यञ्च a. (तिरश्ची f., rarely तिर्यञ्ची)
    1 Oblique, transverse, horizontal, awry; तिर्यगूर्ध्वमधस्ताच्च व्यापको महिमा हरेः Ku.6.71.
    -2 Crooked, curved.
    -3 Crossing over, traversing.
    -4 Winding.
    -5 Lying in the middle or between. -m.,-n.
    1 An animal (going horizontally as distinguished from man who walks erect), a lower or irrational animal; बन्धाय दिव्ये न तिरश्चि कश्चित् पाशा- दिरासादितपौरुषः स्यात् N.3.2; Ku.1.48.
    -2 A bird.
    -3 (With Jainas) The organic world, or plants.
    -Comp. -अन्तरम् intermediate space measured across, breadth.
    -अयनम् the annual revolution of the sun.
    -ईक्ष a. looking obliquely.
    -ईशः an epithet of Kṛiṣṇa.
    -गः an animal.
    -गतिः transmigration of animals.
    -गुणनम् oblique multiplication.
    -जः a. born or begotten by an animal; यस्माद्बीजप्रभावेण तिर्यग्जा ऋषयो$भवन् Ms.1. 72.
    -जनः an animal; Bhāg.2.7.46.
    -जातिः f. the brute kind (opp. man).
    -ज्या an oblique chord.
    -दिश् f. any horizontal region (opposed to nadir and zenith.)
    -प्रमाणम् breadth.
    -प्रेक्षणम् a side-look.
    -प्रेक्षण, प्रेक्षिन् a. looking obliquely; Bhāg.5.26.36.
    -यानः a crab.
    -योनः an animal; Ms.7.149.
    -योनिः f. animal creation or race; तिर्यग्योनौ च जायते Ms.4.2.
    -सूत्रम् a cross-line.
    -स्रोतस् m.
    1 the animal world.
    -2 an animal, a beast or bird.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > तिर्यच् _tiryac _तिर्यञ्च _tiryañca

  • 4 Psychology

       We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)
       The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)
       Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)
       It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)
       "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,
       The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)
       The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)
       According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)
       At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.
       In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.
       The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.
       Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)
       As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)
       The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology

  • 5 तिर्यञ्च्


    tiryáñc
    mfn. (fr. tirás + añ Pāṇ. 6-3, 94 ;

    nom. m. - ryáṅ n. - ryák f. - ráiṡcī, alsoﾠ - ryañcī Vop. IV, 12)
    going orﾠ lying crosswise orﾠ transversely orﾠ obliquely, oblique, transverse
    (opposed to anv-áñc), horizontal (opposed to ūrdhvá)
    AV. VS. TS. etc.. ;
    going across ṠBr. XIV, 9, 3, 2 f. ;
    moving tortuously W. ;
    curved, crooked W. ;
    meandering W. ;
    lying in the middle orﾠ between (a tone), XI, 4, 2, 5 ff. VPrāt. I, 149 ;
    m. n. « going horizontally», an animal (amphibious animal, bird, etc.)
    Mn. V, 40; XII, 57 Yājñ. MBh. etc.. ;
    the organic world (including plants) Jain. ;
    n. = - ryak-pramāṇa Ṡulbas. ;
    f. the female of any animal W. ;
    ( ryák) ind. across, obliquely, transversely, horizontally, sideways ṠBr. KātyṠr. ṠāṇkhṠr. VPrāt. Mn. etc.. ;
    (-raṡcā́) instr. ind. id. RV. I, 61, 12; II, 10, 4; X, 70, 4 ;
    (- raṡcí) loc. ind. id. ṠBr. II, 3, 2, 12 KātyṠr. XVII, 8, 14 and 12, 1.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > तिर्यञ्च्

  • 6 świ|at

    m 1. sgt (kula ziemska) the world, the globe
    - podróż dookoła świata a journey round a. around the world
    - najwyższy/największy na świecie the highest/largest in the world
    - stary jak świat as old as the hills
    2. sgt (najbliższa okolica) the (outside) world
    - jest taka mgła, że świata nie widać it’s so foggy a. misty (that) you can’t see anything
    3. sgt (rzeczywistość) the world
    - odsunąć się od świata to withdraw a. retire from the world
    - chcieć zmienić świat to want to change the world
    4. (dalekie strony) the world
    - szeroki świat the world at large
    - iść w świat to go out into the world
    5. (region) world
    - podwodny świat the submarine world
    6. sgt (ludzkość) the world
    - cały świat ją podziwiał the entire world admired her
    7. (środowisko) world
    - świat artystyczny/naukowy the word of art/science
    - świat przestępczy the criminal world
    8. (przyroda) world
    - świat organiczny/nieorganiczny the organic/inorganic world
    - świat zwierząt the animal world
    - świat z betonu i szkła a world of concrete and glass
    9 (dziedzina) world
    - świat dźwięków/cyfr the world of sound(s)/numbers
    - świat marzeń the world of dreams
    10 książk. (kosmos) the universe 11 (ośrodek życia w kosmosie) world
    - wojna światów war of the worlds
    12 sgt (byt) world
    - świat realny the real world
    - świat duchowy the spiritual world
    - □ Nowy Świat książk. the New World
    - Stary Świat książk. the Old World
    - Trzeci Świat Polit. the Third World
    ■ elegancki świat żart. high society
    - wielki a. szeroki świat the rich and (the) famous
    - ten świat this world
    - nie z tego świata not of this world
    - zejść z tego świata książk. to depart this life euf.
    - przenieść a. wyprawić się na tamten świat to go to meet one’s Maker żart.; to go the way of all flesh
    - wyprawić a. wysłać kogoś na tamten świat to dispatch sb (into the next world) żart., to send sb to meet their Maker żart.
    - tamten świat the next world, the afterworld
    - dwa światy (odrębne środowiska) two different worlds; (o osobach) completely different characters
    - jak świat światem (zawsze) since time immemorial; (nigdy) never
    - za nic w świecie not for all the world
    - błagać a. prosić na wszystko w świecie to beg for all one is worth
    - na oczach świata in public, in full view (of the public)
    - podbić świat to conquer the world
    - świata nie widzieć poza kimś/czymś to think all the world of sb
    - przyjść na świat książk. to be born
    - puścić w świat to spread [wiadomość, plotkę]
    - wejść w świat to enter society
    - wyrzec się świata książk. to renounce the world książk.
    - zapomnieć o całym a. bożym świecie to be oblivious to the whole a. entire world
    - żegnać się ze światem książk. to take one’s leave of the world
    - świat idzie naprzód a. do przodu the world is advancing (all the time)
    - świat stoi przed kimś otworem the world is sb’s oyster
    - świat się do góry nogami przewraca pot. the whole world’s gone crazy pot.
    - świat i ludzie! pot. that’s more than enough

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > świ|at

  • 7 Carothers, Wallace Hume

    [br]
    b. 27 April 1896 Burlington, Iowa, USA
    d. 29 April 1937 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
    [br]
    American chemist, inventor of nylon.
    [br]
    After graduating in chemistry, Carothers embarked on academic research at several universities, finally at Harvard University. His earliest published papers, from 1923, heralded the brilliance and originality of his later work. In 1928, Du Pont de Nemours persuaded him to forsake the academic world to lead their new organic-chemistry group in a programme of fundamental research at their central laboratories at Wilmington, Delaware. The next nine years were extraordinarily productive, yielding important contributions to theoretical organic chemistry and the foundation of two branches of chemical industry, namely the production of synthetic rubber and of wholly synthetic fibres.
    Carothers began work on high molecular weight substances yielding fibres and introduced polymerization by condensation: polymerization by addition was already known. He developed a clear understanding of the relation between the repeating structural units in a large molecule and its physical chemical properties. In 1931, Carothers found that chloroprene could be polymerized much faster than isoprene, the monomer in natural rubber. This process yielded polychloroprene or neoprene, a synthetic rubber with improved properties. Manufacture began the following year, and the material has continued to be used for speciality rubbers.
    There followed many publications announcing new condensations polymers. On 2 January 1935, he obtained a patent for the formation of new polyamides, including one from adipic acid and hexamethylenediamene. After four years of development work, which cost Du Pont some $27 million, this new polyamide, or nylon, reached the stage of commercial production, beginning on 23 October 1938. Nylon stockings appeared the following year and 64 million were sold during the first twelve months. However, Carothers saw none of this spectacular success: he had died by his own hand in 1937, after a long history of gradually intensifying depression.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Elected to the National Academy of Science 1936 (he was the first industrial organic chemist to be so honoured).
    Bibliography
    H.M.Whitby and G.S.Whitby, 1940, Collected Papers of Wallace H.Carothers on Polymerisation, New York.
    Further Reading
    R.Adams, 1939, memoir, Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 20:293–309 (includes a complete list of Carothers's sixty-two scientific papers and most of his sixty-nine US patents).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Carothers, Wallace Hume

  • 8 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 9 Haber, Fritz

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 9 December 1868 Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland)
    d. 29 January 1934 Basel, Switzerland
    [br]
    German chemist, inventor of the process for the synthesis of ammonia.
    [br]
    Haber's father was a manufacturer of dyestuffs, so he studied organic chemistry at Berlin and Heidelberg universities to equip him to enter his father's firm. But his interest turned to physical chemistry and remained there throughout his life. He became Assistant at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe in 1894; his first work there was on pyrolysis and electrochemistry, and he published his Grundrisse der technischen Electrochemie in 1898. Haber became famous for thorough and illuminating theoretical studies in areas of growing practical importance. He rose through the academic ranks and was appointed a full professor in 1906. In 1912 he was also appointed Director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry at Dahlem, outside Berlin.
    Early in the twentieth century Haber invented a process for the synthesis of ammonia. The English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes (1832–1919) had warned of the danger of mass hunger because the deposits of Chilean nitrate were becoming exhausted and nitrogenous fertilizers would not suffice for the world's growing population. A solution lay in the use of the nitrogen in the air, and the efforts of chemists centred on ways of converting it to usable nitrate. Haber was aware of contemporary work on the fixation of nitrogen by the cyanamide and arc processes, but in 1904 he turned to the study of ammonia formation from its elements, nitrogen and hydrogen. During 1907–9 Haber found that the yield of ammonia reached an industrially viable level if the reaction took place under a pressure of 150–200 atmospheres and a temperature of 600°C (1,112° F) in the presence of a suitable catalyst—first osmium, later uranium. He devised an apparatus in which a mixture of the gases was pumped through a converter, in which the ammonia formed was withdrawn while the unchanged gases were recirculated. By 1913, Haber's collaborator, Carl Bosch had succeeded in raising this laboratory process to the industrial scale. It was the first successful high-pressure industrial chemical process, and solved the nitrogen problem. The outbreak of the First World War directed the work of the institute in Dahlem to military purposes, and Haber was placed in charge of chemical warfare. In this capacity, he developed poisonous gases as well as the means of defence against them, such as gas masks. The synthetic-ammonia process was diverted to produce nitric acid for explosives. The great benefits and achievement of the Haber-Bosch process were recognized by the award in 1919 of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, but on account of Haber's association with chemical warfare, British, French and American scientists denounced the award; this only added to the sense of bitterness he already felt at his country's defeat in the war. He concentrated on the theoretical studies for which he was renowned, in particular on pyrolysis and autoxidation, and both the Karlsruhe and the Dahlem laboratories became international centres for discussion and research in physical chemistry.
    With the Nazi takeover in 1933, Haber found that, as a Jew, he was relegated to second-class status. He did not see why he should appoint staff on account of their grandmothers instead of their ability, so he resigned his posts and went into exile. For some months he accepted hospitality in Cambridge, but he was on his way to a new post in what is now Israel when he died suddenly in Basel, Switzerland.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1898, Grundrisse der technischen Electrochemie.
    1927, Aus Leben und Beruf.
    Further Reading
    J.E.Coates, 1939, "The Haber Memorial Lecture", Journal of the Chemical Society: 1,642–72.
    M.Goran, 1967, The Story of Fritz Haber, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press (includes a complete list of Haber's works).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Haber, Fritz

  • 10 Bergius, Friedrich Carl Rudolf

    [br]
    b. 11 October 1884 Goldschmieden, near Breslau, Germany
    d. 31 March Buenos Aires, Argentina
    [br]
    [br]
    After studying chemistry in Breslau and Leipzig and assisting inter alia at the institute of Fritz Haber in Karlsruhe on the catalysis of ammonia under high pressure, in 1909 he went to Hannover to pursue his idea of turning coal into liquid hydrocarbon under high hydrogen pressure (200 atm) and high temperatures (470° C). As experiments with high pressure in chemical processes were still in their initial stages and the Technical University could not support him sufficiently, he set up a private laboratory to develop the methods and to construct the equipment himself. Four years later, in 1913, his process for producing liquid or organic compounds from coal was patented.
    The economic aspects of this process were apparent as the demand for fuels and lubricants increased more rapidly than the production of oil, and Bergius's process became even more important after the outbreak of the First World War. The Th. Goldschmidt company of Essen contracted him and tried large-scale production near Mannheim in 1914, but production failed because of the lack of capital and experience to operate with high pressure on an industrial level. Both capital and experience were provided jointly by the BASF company, which produced ammonia at Merseburg, and IG Farben, which took over the Bergius process in 1925, the same year that the synthesis of hydrocarbon had been developed by Fischer-Tropsch. Two years later, at the Leuna works, almost 100,000 tonnes of oil were produced from coal; during the following years, several more hydrogenation plants were to follow, especially in the eastern parts of Germany as well as in the Ruhr area, while the government guaranteed the costs. The Bergius process was extremely important for the supply of fuels to Germany during the Second World War, with the monthly production rate in 1943–4 being more than 700,000 tonnes. However, the plants were mostly destroyed at. the end of the war and were later dismantled.
    As a consequence of this success Bergius, who had gained an international reputation, went abroad to work as a consultant to several foreign governments. Experiments aiming to reduce the costs of production are still continued in some countries. By 1925, after he had solved all the principles of his process, he had turned to the production of dextrose by hydrolyzing wood with highly concentrated hydrochloric acid.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Nobel Prize 1931. Honorary doctorates, Heidelberg, Harvard and Hannover.
    Bibliography
    1907, "Über absolute Schwefelsäure als Lösungsmittel", unpublished thesis, Weida. 1913, Die Anwendung hoher Drucke bei chemischen Vorgängen und eine Nachbildung
    des Entstehungsprozesses der Steinkohle, Halle. 1913, DRP no. 301, 231 (coal-liquefaction process).
    1925, "Verflüssigung der Kohle", Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 69:1313–20, 1359–62.
    1933, "Chemische Reaktionen unter hohem Druck", Les Prix Nobel en 1931, Stockholm, pp. 1–37.
    Further Reading
    Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, 1985, Friedrich Bergius und die Kohleverflüssigung. Stationen einer Entwicklung, Bochum (gives a comprehensive and illustrated description of the man and the technology).
    H.Beck, 1982, Friedrich Bergius, ein Erfinderschicksal, Munich: Deutsches Museum (a detailed biographical description).
    W.Birkendfeld, 1964, Der synthetische Treibstoff 1933–1945. Ein Beitragzur nationalsozialistischen Wirtschafts-und Rüstungspolitik, Göttingen, Berlin and Frankfurt (describes the economic value of synthetic fuels for the Third Reich).
    WK

    Biographical history of technology > Bergius, Friedrich Carl Rudolf

  • 11 anima

    ănĭma, ae, f. ( gen. animāï, Lucr. 1, 112; 3, 150 et saep.; cf. Neue, Formenl. I. p. 12; Lachm. ad Lucr. 1, 29; dat. and abl. plur. regul. animis, Cic. Fam. 14, 14; Lact. Inst. 6, 20, 19; 7, 2, 1; Arn. 2, 18; 2, 30; 2, 33; Aug. Civ. Dei, 13, 18; 13, 19; id. Ver. Relig. 22, 43:

    animabus, only in eccl. and later Lat.,

    Vulg. Exod. 30, 12; ib. Psa. 77, 18; ib. Matt. 11, 29; ib. Heb. 13, 17 et saep.; Tert. adv. Marc. 4, 34; id. Anim. 33 al.; Aug. Civ. Dei, 19, 23; Prud. c. Symm. 1, 531; Aus. Rer. Odyss. 11; Serv. ad Verg. A. 6, 136 al.; Neue, Formenl. I. p. 29) [v. animus], pr. that which blows or breathes; hence,
    I.
    Lit., air, a current of air, a breeze, wind (mostly poet.):

    ne quid animae forte amittat dormiens,

    Plaut. Aul. 2, 4, 23 sq.: vela ventorum animae immittere, Att. ap. Non. p. 234, 9 (Trag. Rel. p. 137 Rib.):

    aurarum leves animae,

    Lucr. 5, 236:

    prece quaesit Ventorum pavidus paces animasque secundas,

    he anxiously implores a lull in the winds and a favoring breeze, id. 5, 1229:

    impellunt animae lintea,

    Hor. C. 4, 12, 2:

    Ne dubites quin haec animaï turbida sit vis,

    Lucr. 6, 693: Quantum ignes animaeque [p. 121] valent (of the wind in the workshop of Vulcan), Verg. A. 8, 403.—Also of a flame of fire (blowing like the air): noctilucam tollo, ad focum fero, inflo; anima reviviscit, Varr. ap. Non. p. 234, 5.—
    II.
    Transf.
    A.
    In gen., the air, as an element, like fire, water, and earth (mostly poet.): aqua, terra, anima et sol, Enn. ap. Varr. R. R. 1, 4, 1:

    qui quattuor ex rebus posse omnia rentur, Ex igni, terrā atque animā, procrescere et imbri,

    Lucr. 1, 715:

    ut, quem ad modum ignis animae, sic anima aquae, quodque anima aquae, id aqua terrae proportione redderet. Earum quattuor rerum etc.,

    Cic. Tim. 5:

    utrum (animus) sit ignis, an anima, an sanguis,

    id. Ac. 2, 39, 124:

    si anima est (animus), fortasse dissipabitur,

    id. Tusc. 1, 1, 24; 1, 25, 6:

    si deus aut anima aut ignis est, idem est animus hominis,

    id. ib. 1, 26, 65:

    animus ex inflammatā animā constat, ut potissimum videri video Panaetio,

    id. ib. 1, 18, 42:

    Semina terrarumque animaeque,

    Verg. E. 6, 32.—
    B.
    The air inhaled and exhaled, breath (concr.); while spiritus denotes orig. breathing (abstr.; very freq. in prose and poetry); cf. Cic. N. D. 2, 54, 136:

    excipiat animam eam, quae ducta sit spiritu,

    Plaut. As. 5, 2, 44:

    animam compressi, aurem admovi,

    Ter. Phorm. 5, 6, 28 Ruhnk.:

    animam recipe,

    take breath, id. Ad. 3, 2, 26:

    cum spiritus ejus (sc. Demosthenis) esset angustior, tantum continendā animā in dicendo est assecutus, ut, etc.,

    Cic. de Or. 1, 61, 261:

    ne circuitus ipse verborum sit longior quam vires atque anima patiatur,

    id. ib. 3, 49, 191; 3, 46, 181; id. N. D. 2, 54, 136: fetida anima nasum oppugnat, Titin. ap. Non. p. 233, 5 (Com. Rel. p. 136 Rib.); Caecil. ib. 9:

    qui non modo animum integrum, sed ne animam quidem puram conservare potuisset,

    Cic. Verr. 2, 3, 58: animas et olentia Medi Ora fovent illo, with this the Medes correct their breath, etc., Verg. G. 2, 134:

    respiramen iterque Eripiunt animae,

    Ov. M. 12, 143; cf. id. F. 1, 425:

    animae gravitas,

    bad smell of the breath, Plin. 20, 9, 35, § 91; cf. id. 11, 37, 72, § 188; 22, 25, 64, § 132 al.:

    artavit clusitque animam,

    Luc. 4, 370; so Tac. A. 6, 50:

    spes illorum abominatio animae,

    Vulg. Job, 11, 20.—Of breath exhaled:

    inspirant graves animas,

    Ov. M. 4, 498.— Of the air breathed into a musical instrument, a breath of air, Varr. ap. Non. p. 233. 13.—Since air is a necessary condition of life,
    C.
    1.. The vital principle, the breath of life:

    animus est, quo sapimus, anima, quā vivimus,

    Non. p. 426, 27 (hence anima denotes the animal principle of life, in distinction from animus, the spiritual, reasoning, willing principle; very freq. in Lucr. and class.): Mater est terra, ea parit corpus, animam aether adjugat, Pac. ap. Non. p. 75, 11 (Trag. Rel. p. 88 Rib.):

    tunc cum primis ratione sagaci, Unde anima atque animi constet natura, videndum,

    whence spring life and the nature of the mind, Lucr. 1, 131; 3, 158 sq.; so id. 3, 417 sq.; 3, 565; 3, 705; 2, 950; 4, 922; 4, 944; 4, 959; 6, 798; 6, 1223;

    6, 1233 et saep.: deus totus est sensuus, totus visuus, totus audituus, totus animae, totus animi, totus sui,

    Plin. 2, 7, 5, § 14 Jan:

    quaedam (animantia) animum habent, quaedam tantum animam,

    Sen. Ep. 58:

    anima omnis carnis in sanguine est,

    Vulg. Lev. 17, 14 al. —Hence,
    2.
    In gen., life:

    cum anima corpus liquerit,

    Att. Trag. Rel. p. 214 Rib.:

    Animae pauxillulum in me habet,

    Naev. Com. Rel. p. 14 Rib.: Date ferrum, quī me animā privem, Enn. ap. Non. p. 474, 31 (Trag. Rel. p. 37 Rib.): me dicabo atque animam devōvo (i. e. devovero) hostibus, Att. ap. Non. p. 98, 12 (Trag. Rel. p. 283 Rib.):

    conficit animam vis volneris,

    Att. Trag. Rel. p. 209 Rib.:

    adimere animam,

    Plaut. Mil. 3, 1, 137; so id. Men. 5, 5, 7:

    exstinguere,

    Ter. Ad. 3, 2, 16:

    relinquere,

    id. ib. 3, 4, 52:

    edere,

    Cic. Sest. 38:

    de vestrā vitā, de conjugum vestrarum ac liberorum animā judicandum est,

    id. Cat. 4, 9, 18:

    si tibi omnia sua praeter animam tradidit,

    id. Rosc. Am. 50:

    libertas et anima nostra in dubio est,

    Sall. C. 52, 6:

    pauci, quibus relicta est anima, clausi in tenebris, etc.,

    id. J. 14, 15; cf.

    retinere,

    id. ib. 31, 20:

    de manu viri et fratris ejus requiram animam hominis,

    Vulg. Gen. 9, 5; ib. Matt. 2, 20; ib. 1 Cor. 14, 7:

    animam agere,

    to give up the ghost, to die, Cic. Tusc. 1, 9, 19;

    so also efflare,

    to expire, id. ib.; id. Mil. 18 fin.; Suet. Aug. 99; so,

    exhalare,

    Ov. M. 15, 528; and, exspirare, id. ib. 5, 106 (cf. in Gr. thumon apopneein, psuchên ekpneein, bion apopsuchein, etc.):

    deponere,

    Nep. Hann. 1, 3:

    ponere,

    Vulg. Joan. 10, 17; 13, 27:

    amittere,

    Lucr. 6, 1233:

    emittere,

    Nep. Epam. 9, 3 Br. (so in Gr. aphienai tên psuchên):

    proicere,

    Verg. A. 6, 436:

    purpuream vomit ille animam, said of a wounded man,

    id. ib. 9, 349.—In Vulg. Matt. 16, 25 and 26, anima in v. 25 seems to pass to the higher meaning, soul, (cf. infra, II. D.) in v. 26, as hê psuchê in the original also can do.— Poet.:

    anima amphorae,

    the fumes of wine, Phaedr. 3, 1: Ni ego illi puteo, si occepso, animam omnem intertraxero, draw up all the life of that well, i. e. draw it dry, Plaut. Am. 2, 2, 41.— Trop.:

    corpus imperii unius praesidis nutu, quasi animā et mente, regeretur,

    Flor. 4, 3:

    accentus quasi anima vocis est,

    Pompon. p. 67 Lind.—Prov.: animam debere, to owe life itself, of one deeply in debt:

    quid si animam debet?

    Ter. Phorm. 4, 3, 56 (Graecum proverbium: kai autên tên psuchên opheilei, Don.).—Metaph., applied to plants and other things possessing organic life, Sen. Ep. 58; so Plin. 17, 21, 35, § 152; 31, 1, 1, § 3; 14, 1, 3, § 16 al.—
    3.
    Meton., a creature endowed with anima, a living being: ova parere solet genu' pennis condecoratum, non animam, Enn. ap. Varr. L. L. 5, 10, 18:

    hi (deos) fibris animāque litant,

    Stat. Th. 2, 246; Vulg. Gen. 2, 7; ib. Josh. 11, 11; ib. Luc. 9, 56; ib. Act. 2, 43 et saep.:

    animae rationis expertes,

    Lact. 3, 8.—So esp. of men (as we also say souls for persons; poet. or in post-Aug. prose):

    egregias animas, quae sanguine nobis Hanc patriam peperere suo, etc.,

    Verg. A. 11, 24:

    animae quales nec candidiores, etc.,

    Hor. S. 1, 5, 41; Luc. 5, 322:

    vos Treveri et ceterae servientium animae,

    ministering spirits, Tac. H. 4, 32.—So in enumerations in eccl. Lat.:

    hos genuit Jacob sedecim animas,

    Vulg. Gen. 46, 18; 46, 22; ib. Act. 2, 41; 7, 14.—Of slaves (eccl. Lat.):

    merces animarum hominum,

    Vulg. Apoc. 18, 13 (after the use of hê psuchê and). —Hence, also, souls separated from the body, the shades of the Lower World, manes: Unde (ex Averno) animae excitantur, Enn. ap. Cic. Tusc. 1, 16, 37:

    tu pias laetis animas reponis Sedibus,

    Hor. C. 1, 10, 17; cf. id. S. 1, 8, 29:

    animamque sepulcro Condimus,

    Verg. A. 3, 67; Ov. M. 7, 612; so id. ib. 8, 488; 10, 41; 14, 411; 15, 158; Suet. Caes. 88; so,

    vita: tenuīs sine corpore vitas volitare,

    Verg. A. 6, 292.—So in eccl. Lat. of departed spirits:

    timete eum, qui potest animam et corpus perdere in Gehennam,

    Vulg. Matt. 10, 28 bis:

    non derelinques animam meam in Inferno,

    ib. Act. 2, 27; ib. Apoc. 6, 9; 20, 4.—
    4.
    As expressive of love:

    vos, meae carissimae animae,

    my dearest souls, Cic. Fam. 14, 14; 14, 18:

    Pro quā non metuam mori, Si parcent animae fata superstiti,

    the dear surviving life, Hor. C. 3, 9, 12; cf.:

    animae dimidium meae,

    id. ib. 1, 3, 8:

    meae pars animae,

    id. ib. 2, 17, 5.—
    D.
    Sometimes for animus, as the rational soul of man.
    a.
    The mind as the seat of thought (cf. animus, II. A.):

    anima rationis consiliique particeps,

    Cic. N.D.1, 31, 87:

    causa in animā sensuque meo penitus affixa atque insita,

    id. Verr. 2, 5, 53:

    ingenii facinora, sicut anima, immortalia sunt,

    Sall. J. 2, 2.—So often in eccl. Lat.:

    ad te Domine, levavi animam meam,

    Vulg. Psa. 24, 1; 102, 1; 118, 129:

    magnificat anima mea Dominum,

    ib. Luc. 1, 46; ib. Act. 15, 24 al.—
    b.
    As the seat of feeling (cf. animus, II. B.): sapimus animo, fruimur animā: sine animo anima est debilis, Att. ap. Non. p. 426, 29 (Trag. Rel. p. 175 Rib.):

    desiderat anima mea ad te, Deus,

    Vulg. Psa. 41, 2:

    tristis est anima mea,

    ib. Matt. 26, 38; ib. Joan. 10, 27 et saep.—
    E.
    For consciousness (cf. animus, II. A. 3. and conscientia, II. A.):

    cum perhibetur animam liquisse,

    Lucr. 3, 598; in this phrase animus is more common.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > anima

  • 12 Dakin, Henry Drysdale

    SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology
    [br]
    b. 12 March 1880 Hampstead, England
    d. 10 February 1952 Scarborough-on-Hudson, New York, USA
    [br]
    English biochemist, advocate and exponent of the treatment of wounds with antiseptic fluid, Dakin's solution (Eusol).
    [br]
    The youngest of a family of eight of moderate means, Dakin received his early education in Leeds experiencing strict scientific training as a public analyst. He regarded this as having been of the utmost value to him in his lifelong commitment to the emerging discipline of biochemistry.
    He was one of the earliest to specialize in the significance of optical activity in organic chemistry, and obtained his BSc from Manchester in 1901. Following this, he worked at the Lister (Jenner) Institute of Preventive Medicine and at Heidelberg. He then received an invitation to join Christian Herter in a private research laboratory that had been established in New York. There, for the rest of his life, he continued his studies into a wide variety of biochemical topics. Christian Herter died in 1910, and six years later his widow and Dakin were married.
    Unable to serve in the First World War, he made a major contribution, in collaboration with Carrel, with the technique for the antiseptic irrigation of wounds with a buffered hypochlorite solution (Eusol), a therapy which in the 1990s is still an accepted approach to the treatment of infected wounds. The original trials were carried out on the liner Aquitania, then serving as a hospital ship in the Dardanelles.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Fellow of the Royal Society 1917. Davy Medal 1941. Honorary doctorates, Yale, Leeds and Heidelberg Universities.
    Bibliography
    1915, "On the use of certain antiseptic substances in the treatment of infected wounds", British Medical Journal.
    1915, with A.Carrel, "Traitement abortif de l'infection des plaies", Bulletin of the
    Academy of Medicine.
    MG

    Biographical history of technology > Dakin, Henry Drysdale

  • 13 Wright, Frank Lloyd

    [br]
    b. 8 June 1869 Richland Center, Wisconsin, USA
    d. 9 April 1959 Phoenix, Arizona, USA
    [br]
    American architect who, in an unparalleled career spanning almost seventy years, became the most important figure on the modern architectural scene both in his own country and far further afield.
    [br]
    Wright began his career in 1887 working in the Chicago offices of Adler \& Sullivan. He conceived a great admiration for Sullivan, who was then concentrating upon large commercial projects in modern mode, producing functional yet decorative buildings which took all possible advantage of new structural methods. Wright was responsible for many of the domestic commissions.
    In 1893 Wright left the firm in order to set up practice on his own, thus initiating a career which was to develop into three distinct phases. In the first of these, up until the First World War, he was chiefly designing houses in a concept in which he envisaged "the house as a shelter". These buildings displayed his deeply held opinion that detached houses in country areas should be designed as an integral part of the landscape, a view later to be evidenced strongly in the work of modern Finnish architects. Wright's designs were called "prairie houses" because so many of them were built in the MidWest of America, which Wright described as a "prairie". These were low and spreading, with gently sloping rooflines, very plain and clean lined, built of traditional materials in warm rural colours, blending softly into their settings. Typical was W.W.Willit's house of 1902 in Highland Park, Illinois.
    In the second phase of his career Wright began to build more extensively in modern materials, utilizing advanced means of construction. A notable example was his remarkable Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, carefully designed and built in 1916–22 (now demolished), with special foundations and structure to withstand (successfully) strong earthquake tremors. He also became interested in the possibilities of reinforced concrete; in 1906 he built his church at Oak Park, Illinois, entirely of this material. In the 1920s, in California, he abandoned his use of traditional materials for house building in favour of precast concrete blocks, which were intended to provide an "organic" continuity between structure and decorative surfacing. In his continued exploration of the possibilities of concrete as a building material, he created the dramatic concept of'Falling Water', a house built in 1935–7 at Bear Run in Pennsylvania in which he projected massive reinforced-concrete terraces cantilevered from a cliff over a waterfall in the woodlands. In the later 1930s an extraordinary run of original concepts came from Wright, then nearing 70 years of age, ranging from his own winter residence and studio, Taliesin West in Arizona, to the administration block for Johnson Wax (1936–9) in Racine, Wisconsin, where the main interior ceiling was supported by Minoan-style, inversely tapered concrete columns rising to spreading circular capitals which contained lighting tubes of Pyrex glass.
    Frank Lloyd Wright continued to work until four days before his death at the age of 91. One of his most important and certainly controversial commissions was the Solomon R.Guggenheim Museum in New York. This had been proposed in 1943 but was not finally built until 1956–9; in this striking design the museum's exhibition areas are ranged along a gradually mounting spiral ramp lit effectively from above. Controversy stemmed from the unusual and original design of exterior banding and interior descending spiral for wall-display of paintings: some critics strongly approved, while others, equally strongly, did not.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    RIBA Royal Gold Medal 1941.
    Bibliography
    1945, An Autobiography, Faber \& Faber.
    Further Reading
    E.Kaufmann (ed.), 1957, Frank Lloyd Wright: an American Architect, New York: Horizon Press.
    H.Russell Hitchcock, 1973, In the Nature of Materials, New York: Da Capo.
    T.A.Heinz, 1982, Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: St Martin's.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Wright, Frank Lloyd

  • 14 pasar apuros

    v.
    to have a hard time.
    * * *
    (económicos) to be hard up 2 (dificultades) to be in a tight spot
    * * *
    (v.) = struggle, pass through + adversity, have + a thin time, be under strain, bear + hardship, be hard pressed, feel + the pinch, have + a hard time, the wolves + be + at the door, have + a tough time
    Ex. The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.
    Ex. The personnel officer could see that the director was passing through adversity.
    Ex. But the week by week publication of details of companies' accounts in the Bookseller cannot but show that many publishing houses have been having a very thin time indeed.
    Ex. Sources of domestic supply of periodicals in the socialist countries are also under strain or have collapsed.
    Ex. So we see extraordinary hardships cheerfully borne (indeed, apparently enjoyed) by zealous mountaineers, earnest single-handed yachtsmen floating round the world, and all-weather fishing-hobbyists sit patiently at the side of, and sometimes in, rivers, undeterred by the paucity of their catches.
    Ex. Patent lawyers would be hard pressed if they had to operate without abstracts to the millions upon millions of patents issued for centuries all around the world.
    Ex. Not unlike many municipalities in these inflationary times, Earnscliffe is feeling the pinch of a severely high general property tax -- i.e., the tax on real estate and personal property, both tangible and intangible.
    Ex. Scholars are going to have a hard time finding that reference.
    Ex. Yes, I know it's late, but there has been 'trouble at mill' -- the wolves have been at the doors, and the natives are nervous.
    Ex. He had a tough time lugging his lumpy, oversized travelbag onto the plane and stuffing it in the overhead bin.
    * * *
    (v.) = struggle, pass through + adversity, have + a thin time, be under strain, bear + hardship, be hard pressed, feel + the pinch, have + a hard time, the wolves + be + at the door, have + a tough time

    Ex: The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.

    Ex: The personnel officer could see that the director was passing through adversity.
    Ex: But the week by week publication of details of companies' accounts in the Bookseller cannot but show that many publishing houses have been having a very thin time indeed.
    Ex: Sources of domestic supply of periodicals in the socialist countries are also under strain or have collapsed.
    Ex: So we see extraordinary hardships cheerfully borne (indeed, apparently enjoyed) by zealous mountaineers, earnest single-handed yachtsmen floating round the world, and all-weather fishing-hobbyists sit patiently at the side of, and sometimes in, rivers, undeterred by the paucity of their catches.
    Ex: Patent lawyers would be hard pressed if they had to operate without abstracts to the millions upon millions of patents issued for centuries all around the world.
    Ex: Not unlike many municipalities in these inflationary times, Earnscliffe is feeling the pinch of a severely high general property tax -- i.e., the tax on real estate and personal property, both tangible and intangible.
    Ex: Scholars are going to have a hard time finding that reference.
    Ex: Yes, I know it's late, but there has been 'trouble at mill' -- the wolves have been at the doors, and the natives are nervous.
    Ex: He had a tough time lugging his lumpy, oversized travelbag onto the plane and stuffing it in the overhead bin.

    Spanish-English dictionary > pasar apuros

  • 15 emanación

    f.
    1 emanation, emission, outflow, effluence.
    2 effluvium.
    * * *
    1 emanation
    * * *
    SF [de gas, humo, luz] (=acto) emission, emanation frm; (=olor) smell
    * * *
    femenino emanation (frml)
    * * *
    = emanation, release, outpouring, emission, outflow.
    Ex. CCRC has considered radical things that don't seem to fit in with any of these aims, such as abandoning main entry and restricting corporate authorship by eliminating it entirely, and now euphemistically calling it corporate emanation.
    Ex. But first we must create the conditions for single-mindedness and hence the release of our energies (one senses much pent-up energy mixed up with our professional frustrations).
    Ex. This tremendous outpouring of titles is one reason why British publishing has such a highly esteemed place in the world.
    Ex. This article describes how the property of chemiluminescence -- the faint emission of light from organic materials undergoing oxidisation -- may be used to measure the rate of degradation of paper.
    Ex. A dam at the Strait of Gibraltar could be constructed to limit the outflow and reverse the climate deterioration, thus holding off the next ice age.
    ----
    * emanación tóxica = fume, toxic fume, flue gas, toxic emission.
    * * *
    femenino emanation (frml)
    * * *
    = emanation, release, outpouring, emission, outflow.

    Ex: CCRC has considered radical things that don't seem to fit in with any of these aims, such as abandoning main entry and restricting corporate authorship by eliminating it entirely, and now euphemistically calling it corporate emanation.

    Ex: But first we must create the conditions for single-mindedness and hence the release of our energies (one senses much pent-up energy mixed up with our professional frustrations).
    Ex: This tremendous outpouring of titles is one reason why British publishing has such a highly esteemed place in the world.
    Ex: This article describes how the property of chemiluminescence -- the faint emission of light from organic materials undergoing oxidisation -- may be used to measure the rate of degradation of paper.
    Ex: A dam at the Strait of Gibraltar could be constructed to limit the outflow and reverse the climate deterioration, thus holding off the next ice age.
    * emanación tóxica = fume, toxic fume, flue gas, toxic emission.

    * * *
    emanation ( frml)
    emanaciones tóxicas toxic emissions
    las emanaciones fétidas de las aguas estancadas the noxious smell given off by the stagnant water
    * * *

    emanación sustantivo femenino emanation: emanación de gas natural, gas leak
    emanaciones de pintura, paint fumes
    * * *
    emanation, emission;
    emanaciones de gas gas emissions
    emanación radiactiva radioactive emission
    * * *
    f emanation fml, emission
    * * *
    emanación nf, pl - ciones : emanation

    Spanish-English dictionary > emanación

  • 16 esforzarse

    1 (físicamente) to make an effort, exert oneself; (moralmente) to try hard, strive
    * * *
    verb
    to strive, make an effort
    * * *
    VPR to exert o.s., make an effort

    hay que esforzarse más — you must try harder, you must make more effort

    esforzarse en o por conseguir algo — to struggle o strive to achieve sth

    * * *
    = put forth + effort, put forth + energy, strive, strain, labour [labor, -USA], toil, struggle, work + hard, slave away, try + hard.
    Ex. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort.
    Ex. The goal may be of little value or of high scientific or cultural significance, but energy is put forth to accomplish a task.
    Ex. The abstractor must resist the temptation to use long sentences in striving to avoid repetition.
    Ex. His small foreign-made car strained with the added burden of an interior packed to capacity with personal belongings and a heavily laden U-Haul trailor attached to the rear.
    Ex. So we see many wits and ingenuities lying scattered up and down the world, whereof some are now labouring to do what is already done and puzzling themselves to reinvent what is already invented.
    Ex. His novels reflect the story of the spirit of man, undaunted and ceaselessly toiling and achieving ever higher levels of culture.
    Ex. The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.
    Ex. Not only are the standards written, but there is a body called the Peer Council which works very hard at enforcing the standards.
    Ex. Anyone who's spoken to me recently is probably aware that on most nights I'm up slaving away to the wee hours of the morning on my project.
    Ex. Over the years the profession has tried hard to ignore the steady stream of library school closings.
    ----
    * esforzarse al máximo = do + Posesivo + utmost, stretch + Reflexivo, stretch + Nombre + to the limit, give + Posesivo + utmost, lean over + backwards, work + hard, give + Posesivo + best.
    * esforzarse por = endeavour [endeavor, -USA], try + Posesivo + best, go out of + Posesivo + way to + Infinitivo, do + Posesivo + best, exert + effort, try + Posesivo + heart out, give + Posesivo + best, take + (great) pains to.
    * esforzarse por conseguir = strive for, work toward(s).
    * esforzarse por lograr = strive for.
    * * *
    = put forth + effort, put forth + energy, strive, strain, labour [labor, -USA], toil, struggle, work + hard, slave away, try + hard.

    Ex: Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort.

    Ex: The goal may be of little value or of high scientific or cultural significance, but energy is put forth to accomplish a task.
    Ex: The abstractor must resist the temptation to use long sentences in striving to avoid repetition.
    Ex: His small foreign-made car strained with the added burden of an interior packed to capacity with personal belongings and a heavily laden U-Haul trailor attached to the rear.
    Ex: So we see many wits and ingenuities lying scattered up and down the world, whereof some are now labouring to do what is already done and puzzling themselves to reinvent what is already invented.
    Ex: His novels reflect the story of the spirit of man, undaunted and ceaselessly toiling and achieving ever higher levels of culture.
    Ex: The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.
    Ex: Not only are the standards written, but there is a body called the Peer Council which works very hard at enforcing the standards.
    Ex: Anyone who's spoken to me recently is probably aware that on most nights I'm up slaving away to the wee hours of the morning on my project.
    Ex: Over the years the profession has tried hard to ignore the steady stream of library school closings.
    * esforzarse al máximo = do + Posesivo + utmost, stretch + Reflexivo, stretch + Nombre + to the limit, give + Posesivo + utmost, lean over + backwards, work + hard, give + Posesivo + best.
    * esforzarse por = endeavour [endeavor, -USA], try + Posesivo + best, go out of + Posesivo + way to + Infinitivo, do + Posesivo + best, exert + effort, try + Posesivo + heart out, give + Posesivo + best, take + (great) pains to.
    * esforzarse por conseguir = strive for, work toward(s).
    * esforzarse por lograr = strive for.

    * * *

    ■esforzarse verbo reflexivo to make an effort [por, to]: se esfuerza por ser agradable, he takes pains to be pleasant
    ' esforzarse' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    afanarse
    - aplicarse
    - desvivirse
    - esmerarse
    - pelear
    - pujar
    - sudar
    - trabajarse
    - empeñar
    - esforzar
    - matar
    English:
    all-out
    - buck up
    - effort
    - exert
    - flog
    - pain
    - peer
    - seek
    - strain
    - strive
    - endeavor
    - try
    - utmost
    * * *
    vpr
    to make an effort;
    tienes que esforzarte más si quieres aprobar you'll have to make more of an effort if you want to pass;
    nos esforzamos, pero fue imposible ganarlos we tried very hard, but they were impossible to beat;
    no te esfuerces, no puede oírte don't bother (shouting), she can't hear you;
    se esforzaron enormemente en la tarea they put a huge amount of effort into the task;
    esforzarse en o [m5] por hacer algo to make an effort to do sth;
    me esforcé por ayudarlos I made a real effort o did my best to help them;
    nos hemos esforzado mucho por ti we've made a real effort for you, we've really put ourselves out for you;
    se esforzó en contener las lágrimas she tried hard to hold back the tears
    * * *
    v/r make an effort, try hard
    * * *
    vr
    : to make an effort
    * * *
    esforzarse vb to try hard [pt. & pp. tried] / to work hard
    se esforzó mucho he tried very hard / he worked very hard

    Spanish-English dictionary > esforzarse

  • 17 pasar dificultades

    v.
    to be having troubles, to go through a lot of trouble, to be having a lot of trouble, to go through difficulties.
    * * *
    (v.) = struggle, be under strain, bear + hardship, have + a difficult time, experience + difficult times, pass through + difficult times, face + difficult times
    Ex. The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.
    Ex. Sources of domestic supply of periodicals in the socialist countries are also under strain or have collapsed.
    Ex. So we see extraordinary hardships cheerfully borne (indeed, apparently enjoyed) by zealous mountaineers, earnest single-handed yachtsmen floating round the world, and all-weather fishing-hobbyists sit patiently at the side of, and sometimes in, rivers, undeterred by the paucity of their catches.
    Ex. Videotext services have had a notoriously difficult time becoming accepted in the US marketplace.
    Ex. Consumer publishing is experiencing difficult times and there are specific developments which are influencing the market for children's books.
    Ex. The author discusses the history of and services offered by the Folger Shakespeare Library which has passed through difficult times and emerged with a new building and a new personality.
    Ex. This may be a reason why the publishing industry is facing such difficult times.
    * * *
    (v.) = struggle, be under strain, bear + hardship, have + a difficult time, experience + difficult times, pass through + difficult times, face + difficult times

    Ex: The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.

    Ex: Sources of domestic supply of periodicals in the socialist countries are also under strain or have collapsed.
    Ex: So we see extraordinary hardships cheerfully borne (indeed, apparently enjoyed) by zealous mountaineers, earnest single-handed yachtsmen floating round the world, and all-weather fishing-hobbyists sit patiently at the side of, and sometimes in, rivers, undeterred by the paucity of their catches.
    Ex: Videotext services have had a notoriously difficult time becoming accepted in the US marketplace.
    Ex: Consumer publishing is experiencing difficult times and there are specific developments which are influencing the market for children's books.
    Ex: The author discusses the history of and services offered by the Folger Shakespeare Library which has passed through difficult times and emerged with a new building and a new personality.
    Ex: This may be a reason why the publishing industry is facing such difficult times.

    Spanish-English dictionary > pasar dificultades

  • 18 tener dificultad

    v.
    to have difficulty, to find difficulty.
    * * *
    (v.) = struggle, experience + difficulty, be hard pressed
    Ex. The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.
    Ex. Initially, the library staff experienced difficulties in adjusting to the new service.
    Ex. Patent lawyers would be hard pressed if they had to operate without abstracts to the millions upon millions of patents issued for centuries all around the world.
    * * *
    (v.) = struggle, experience + difficulty, be hard pressed

    Ex: The chemist, struggling with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the chemical literature before him in his laboratory.

    Ex: Initially, the library staff experienced difficulties in adjusting to the new service.
    Ex: Patent lawyers would be hard pressed if they had to operate without abstracts to the millions upon millions of patents issued for centuries all around the world.

    Spanish-English dictionary > tener dificultad

  • 19 जीव _jīva

    जीव a. [जीव्-कर्तरि क] Living, existing; जीवपुत्रे निवर्तस्व Rām.4.19.11; असच्च सज्जीवमजीवमन्यत् Bhāg.5.1.12.
    -वः 1 The principle of life, the vital breath, life, soul; गतजीव, जीवत्याग, जीवाशा &c.
    -2 The individual or personal soul enshrined in the human body and im- parting to it life, motion and sensation (called जीवात्मन् as opposed to परमात्मन् the Supreme Soul); Y.3.131; Ms.12.22-23; सम्पद्यते गुणैर्मुक्तो जीवो जीवं विहाय माम् । जीवो जीवविनिर्मुक्तो गुणैश्चाशयसंभवैः ॥ Bhāg.11.25.36. (here जीव = लिङ्गशरीर).
    -3 Life, existence.
    -4 A creature, living being.
    -5 Livelihood, profession.
    -6 N. of Karṇa.
    -7 N. of one of the Maruts.
    -8 The constella- tion पुष्य.
    -9 N. of Bṛihaspati.
    -1 The third lustrum in the cycle of Jupiter.
    -11 Association of cause and effect.
    -12 N. of Viṣṇu.
    -Comp. -अन्तकः 1 a bird- catcher, fowler.
    -2 a murderer, slayer.
    -अजीवाधारः the world of organic and inorganic creation.
    -आत्मन् m. the individual soul enshrined in the human body (as opposed to परमात्मन् 'the Supreme Soul').
    -आदानम् abstracting healthy blood, bleeding (in medic.).
    -आधानम् preservation of life.
    -आधारः the heart.
    -इन्धनम् glowing fire-wood, burning wood.
    -उत्सर्गः 'casting off life,' voluntary death, suicide.
    -उपाधिः the three states, i. e. waking, dreaming and sleeping.
    -ऊर्णा the wool of a living animal.
    -कोशः The subtle body (लिङ्गशरीर);. तदनुस्मर<णध्वस्तजीवकोशास्तमध्ययन् Bhāg. 1.82.48.
    -गृहम्, -मन्दिरम् 'the abode of the soul', the body.
    -ग्राहः a prisoner taken alive;
    -ग्राहम् ind. in an alive condition; जीवग्राहं निगृह्णीमो वयमेनं नराधिपाः Mb.6.77.1.
    -घनः Brahmā.
    -ज a. born alive.
    -जीवः, -जीवकः (also जीवंजीवः) the Chakora bird; रक्तानि हृत्वा वासांसि जायते जीवजीवकः Ms.12.66. According to Artha- śāstra, however, it means a pheasant; विषाभ्याशे ग्लायति जीवंजीवकः । चकोरस्याक्षिणी विरज्येते Kau. A.1.2.17.
    -तोका a woman whose children are living.
    -दः 1 a physician.
    -2 an enemy.
    -दशा mortal existence.
    -धनम् 'living wealth', property in the shape of living crea- tures, live-stock.
    -धानी the earth.
    -निकायः a being endowed with life.
    -पतिः f.,
    -पत्नी a woman whose husband is alive.
    -पत्रम् a fresh leaf.
    -पितृ, -पितृक a. (a son or daughter) whose father is still alive.
    -पुत्रा, -वत्सा a woman whose son is living; जीवपुत्रे निवर्तस्व पुत्रं रक्षस्व चाङ्गदम् Rām.4.19.11.
    -मन्दिरम् The body; L. D. B.
    -मरणम् Death in life; जीवन्मरण- मेतद् इति कौटिल्यः Kau. A.1.17.
    -मातृका the seven mothers or female divinities; (कुमारी धनदा नन्दा विमला मङ्गला बला । पद्मा चेति च विख्याताः सप्तैता जीवमातृकाः ॥).
    -योनिः a sentient being.
    -रक्तम् menstrual blood.
    -लोकः 1 the world of living beings, the world of mortals, the world or worldly existence; आलोकमर्कादिव जीवलोकः R.5.35; त्वत्प्रयाणे शान्तालोकः सर्वतो जीवलोकः Māl. 9.37; जीवलोकतिलकः प्रलीयते 21; so स्वप्नेन्द्रजालसदृशः खलु जीवलोकः Śānti.2.2; Bg.11.7; U.4.17.
    -2 living beings; दिवस इवाभ्रश्यामस्तपात्यये जीवलोकस्य Ś.3.12; or आलोकमर्कादिव जीवलोकः R.5.35.
    -वृत्तिः f. breeding or keeping cattle.
    -शेष a. one to whom only life is left, escaping only with life and nothing more.
    -शोणितम् living, i. e. healthy blood.
    -संक्रमणम् transmigration of the soul.
    -साधनम् grain, corn.
    -साफल्यम् realization or attainment of the chief end of human existence.
    -सूः 'the mother of living beings', a woman whose children are living.
    -स्थानम् 1 a joint, an articulation.
    -2 the vital parts, heart.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > जीव _jīva

  • 20 φθορά

    φθορά, ᾶς, ἡ (Aeschyl., Hdt.+; ins, pap, LXX, En; PsSol 4:6; SibOr 2, 9; Philo; Jos., Ant. 18, 373; Mel., P. 49, 351; Ath., R. 16 p. 67, 24 al.)
    ① breakdown of organic matter, dissolution, deterioration, corruption, in the world of nature (Galen, In Hippocr. De Natura Hominis Comm. 45 p. 25, 6 Mewaldt γένεσις κ. φθορά=coming into being and passing away; 51 p. 28, 11 γένεσις κ. φθορὰ σώματος.—The cause of destruction is made clear by an addition. Cp. Plut., Artox. 1019 [16, 6] concerning Mithridates, who was allowed to decompose while he was still alive: εὐλαὶ κ. σκώληκες ὑπὸ φθορᾶς κ. σηπεδόνος ἀναζέουσιν=maggots and worms swarmed as a result of the destruction and putrefaction [of his body]) τροφὴ φθορᾶς perishable food IRo 7:3. ἅ ἐστιν πάντα εἰς φθορὰν τῇ ἀποχρήσει all of which are meant for destruction by being consumed Col 2:22. Of animals who are destined to be killed 2 Pt 2:12a (X., Cyr. 7, 5, 64; Artem. 1, 78 p. 74, 27.—Schol. on Nicander, Ther. 795 explains κακόφθορα by saying that it designates animals τὰ ἐπὶ κακῇ φθορᾷ τεχθέντα=born to come to an evil end, i.e. destruction).—Of the state of being perishable (opp. ἀφθαρσία as Philo, Mos. 2, 194; Mel., Ath.) 1 Cor 15:42; also concrete, that which is perishable vs. 50. ἡ δουλεία τῆς φθορᾶς slavery to decay Ro 8:21. [ἀπ]ὸ φθορᾶς γεγ[ονός] that which comes from the perishable Ox 1081 13f (=Coptic SJCh 89, 11f; the restoration φθορᾶς pap ln. 12 also corresponds to the Coptic version; for the correct restoration of pap ln. 23 s. under διαφορά).
    ② destruction of a fetus, abortion (cp. SIG 1042, 7 [II/III A.D.] φθορά=miscarriage [which makes the mother unclean for 40 days] and φθόριον=a means of producing abortion) οὐ φονεύσεις ἐν φθορᾷ B 19:5; D 2:2.—On the topic of abortion s. Soranus, Gyn. 64f (procedures); Plut., Mor. 242c (διαφθείρω); SDickison, Abortion in Antiquity: Arethusa 6, ’73, 159–66.
    ③ ruination of a pers. through an immoral act, seduction of a young woman (Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 1, 9 Jac.; Diod S 3, 59, 1; 5, 62, 1; Plut., Mor. 712c; Jos., Ant. 17, 309, C. Ap. 2, 202) w. μοιχεία (Philo, Det. Pot. Ins. 102) 2 Cl 6:4.
    ④ inward depravity, depravity (Ex 18:18; Mi 2:10) ἡ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ ἐν ἐπιθυμίᾳ φθορά the depravity that exists in the world because of inordinate desire (opp. θεία φύσις) 2 Pt 1:4. δοῦλοι τῆς φθορᾶς 2:19. Vs. 12b (s. 5 below) scarcely belongs here.
    ⑤ total destruction of an entity, destruction in the last days Gal 6:8 (opp. ζωὴ αἰώνιος). ἐν τῇ φθορᾷ αὐτῶν καὶ φθαρήσονται when they (the dumb animals) are destroyed in the coming end of the world, these (the false teachers), too, will be destroyed (so BWeiss, Kühl, JMayor, Windisch, Knopf, Vrede) 2 Pt 2:12b.—DELG s.v. θείρω. M-M. TW. Sv.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > φθορά

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